requests模塊
Requests模塊
get方法請求
整體演示一下:
import requests response = requests.get("https://www.baidu.com") print(type(response)) print(response.status_code) print(type(response.text)) print(response.text) print(response.cookies) print(response.content) # 二進制 print(response.content.decode("utf-8"))
我們可以看出response使用起來確實非常方便,這里有個問題需要注意一下:
很多情況下的網站如果直接response.text會出現亂碼的問題,所以這個使用response.content
這樣返回的數據格式其實是二進制格式,然后通過decode()轉換為utf-8,這樣就解決了通過response.text直接返回顯示亂碼的問題.
請求發出后,Requests 會基於 HTTP 頭部對響應的編碼作出有根據的推測。當你訪問 response.text 之時,Requests 會使用其推測的文本編碼。你可以找出 Requests 使用了什么編碼,並且能夠使用 response.encoding 屬性來改變它.如:
import requests response = requests.get( url='https://www.autohome.com.cn/news/' ) response.encoding = response.apparent_encoding # 使用默認的編碼原則 print(response.text)
一個簡單的get請求的爬蟲結果:
如果我們想要在URL查詢字符串傳遞數據,通常我們會通過httpbin.org/get?key=val方式傳遞。Requests模塊允許使用params關鍵字傳遞參數,以一個字典來傳遞這些參數,格式如下:
# 實例方法一 import requests response = requests.get("url?name=dandy&age=18") print(response.text) # 實例方法二 import requests url = '' data = { "name":"dandy", "age":18 } response = requests.get(url,params=data) print(response.url) print(response.text)
上述兩種的結果是相同的,通過params參數傳遞一個字典內容,從而直接構造url
注意:第二種方式通過字典的方式的時候,如果字典中的參數為None則不會添加到url上
獲取二進制數據
在上面提到了response.content,這樣獲取的數據是二進制數據,同樣的這個方法也可以用於下載圖片以及
視頻資源
添加headers
和前面我們將urllib模塊的時候一樣,我們同樣可以定制headers的信息,如當我們直接通過requests請求知乎網站的時候,默認是無法訪問的。谷歌瀏覽器里輸入chrome://version,就可以看到用戶代理,將用戶代理添加到頭部信息:
也可以隨便輸入一個網址:
都可以獲取到。
copy出來仿造的請求頭信息
import requests url = '' headers = { "User-Agent":"Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } response =requests.get(url,headers=headers) print(response.text)
post請求
通過在發送post請求時添加一個data參數,這個data參數可以通過字典構造成,這樣
對於發送post請求就非常方便
import requests url = '' data = { "name":"dandy", "age":18 } response = requests.post(url,data=data) print(response.text)
同樣的在發送post請求的時候也可以和發送get請求一樣通過headers參數傳遞一個字典類型的數據
模擬登陸&自動點贊
首先打開抽屜,點擊登陸,打開開發者模式,隨意的輸入賬號密碼,然后點擊登陸,可以的到如下的圖:
備注:之前抽屜是不會去抓去請求頭的終端設備信息的,現在有驗證了,0.0
首先需要大佬們去注冊一下賬號密碼,然后我們來模擬瀏覽器登陸,這里需要注意的一點是,登陸的時候可以注意一下,如果瀏覽器刷新了,那肯定是form驗證,如果沒有那就一定是ajax驗證。所以這里不用說,測試一下就發現是ajax驗證:
import requests headers = { "User-Agent":"Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } # header里偽造終端信息 post_dict = { 'phone': '8615988888888', 'password': '*******', 'oneMonth': 1 } response = requests.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/login', data=post_dict, headers=headers ) print(response.content) cookie_dict = response.cookies.get_dict() print(cookie_dict)
這里,既然是ajax登陸,返回的可以猜到一定是json數據:
b'{"result":{"code":"9999", "message":"", "data":{"complateReg":"0","destJid":"cdu_51970753537"}}}' {'gpsd': '4fa04e9978e550f8d6ea1fb5418184ee', 'puid': 'c3c133fab0b2ba4bcb5e0f9b494501cd', 'JSESSIONID': 'aaahPA3kgUc2yhWM_9xsw'}
到現在為止,已經順利的實現了登陸功能,然后實現了,大家應該都知道為什么要抓取一下cookies打印出來吧?
cookies的真正的意義就是在於當第一次登陸完,之后就可以直接帶着服務器返回的cookies去向服務器發送請求。之后就可以肆意妄為了!!!
現在我們來實現一下自動點贊的功能,首先找一篇文章,點個贊:
由上,可以發現點贊的網址,post的數據等,此時取消點贊,寫代碼:
import requests headers = { "User-Agent":"Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } post_dict = { 'phone': '8615962180289', 'password': 'zhangy321281', 'oneMonth': 1 } response = requests.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/login', data=post_dict, headers=headers ) print(response.content) cookie_dict = response.cookies.get_dict() print(cookie_dict) response_vote = requests.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/link/vote?linksId=20819056', cookies=cookie_dict ) print(response_vote)
信心滿滿寫好了:
b'{"result":{"code":"9999", "message":"", "data":{"complateReg":"0","destJid":"cdu_51970753537"}}}' {'gpsd': '74338b2cda9e9a355a52854b95474e3a', 'puid': '07fd1754895aefa93b4b46fb52990f7f', 'JSESSIONID': 'aaavRXk12M4Kidy5_9xsw'} <Response [403]>
什么??怎么會這樣??拿着瀏覽器返回的cookie怎么不可以呢?那該怎么辦?
管不了那么多,先用笨方法來測試cookies里面哪一個控制這登陸狀態認證:
取消點贊,重新測試代碼點贊:
import requests headers = { "User-Agent":"Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } response = requests.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/link/vote?linksId=20819056', cookies={ 'gpsd': '5db40ff97b8dd603f70288157d2bdd8f' # 因為沒辦法,所以只能用瀏覽器的cookies做驗證,一次次取一個值 }, headers=headers ) print(response.text)
測試結果:
{"result":{"code":"9999", "message":"推薦成功", "data":{"jid":"cdu_51970753537","likedTime":"1531564084343000","lvCount":"10","nick":"衰Zzz","uvCount":"1","voteTime":"小於1分鍾前"}}}
天吶!!!成功了!!!
所以我們可以先跟蹤確定了,肯定是gpsd有問題。
這時候退出登陸重新刷新網頁:
記錄一下cookies:
cookie: gpsd=5db40ff97b8dd603f70288157d2bdd8f; gpid=d4a8c7f4454841bd8bd640f5f5565420; JSESSIONID=aaaKh89UOAJIy_PfW8xsw
不免有些疑問,為什么第一次get就有cookies,
此時我們再用代碼測試一下gpsd的值:
import requests headers = { "User-Agent":"Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } response_get = requests.get( url='https://dig.chouti.com/', headers=headers ) print(response_get.cookies.get_dict()) post_dict = { 'phone': '8615988888888', 'password': '********', 'oneMonth': 1 } response_post = requests.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/login', data=post_dict, headers=headers ) print(response_post.content) cookie_dict = response_post.cookies.get_dict() print(cookie_dict)
查看cookies對比:
{'gpsd': '38644be424cebb27e1cc631dd84ae9d2', 'JSESSIONID': 'aaaKwMAE52emjedIW-xsw'} b'{"result":{"code":"9999", "message":"", "data":{"complateReg":"0","destJid":"cdu_51970753537"}}}' {'gpsd': '7b32421f6a73365b2dbb6b9739afaaff', 'puid': '497b5a7249b8538e70ac87ead562c91f', 'JSESSIONID': 'aaa5sbGP7XecWf15W8xsw'}
發現兩次的gpsd不一致,從web開發者角度登陸之后的cookies一定是不會再去進行改變,所以前后一共就有這么兩種可能性的cookies,上面的點贊失敗了,那就代表返回的cookies一定是沒有用的:
那是不是可以猜想認證的gpsd會不會是第一次的gpsd值,但是一想又不太可能,因為第一次的還沒有認證,怎么能保證呢?那會不會是第一次的gpsd再登陸的時候傳過去做了認證,然后瀏覽器記錄了它,但是為了防止爬蟲做了一份假的gpsd給你 ,想到這里不免想測試一下:
import requests headers = { "User-Agent": "Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } response_get = requests.get( url='https://dig.chouti.com/', headers=headers ) r1 = response_get.cookies.get_dict() # 第一次get請求獲取服務器給的cookies post_dict = { 'phone': '8615988888888', 'password': '********', 'oneMonth': 1, } response_post = requests.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/login', data=post_dict, headers=headers, cookies=r1 # 第二次再把第一次得到的cookies傳回去進行認證授權 ) print(response_post.content) r2 = response_post.cookies.get_dict() # 這個是個騙子!!! response_vote = requests.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/link/vote?linksId=20819056', cookies={ 'gpsd': r1['gpsd'] }, headers=headers ) print(response_vote.text)
測試結果:
b'{"result":{"code":"9999", "message":"", "data":{"complateReg":"0","destJid":"cdu_51970753537"}}}' {"result":{"code":"9999", "message":"推薦成功", "data":{"jid":"cdu_51970753537","likedTime":"1531565602774000","lvCount":"16","nick":"衰Zzz","uvCount":"1","voteTime":"小於1分鍾前"}}}
完成!!
爬蟲登陸GitHub實戰:https://www.cnblogs.com/wuzdandz/p/9338543.html
請求
前面已經講過基本的GET請求,下面稍微詳談一下帶參數的請求:
import requests # 方法一 response = requests.get('http://****.com/?name=dandy&age=18') print(response.text) # 方法二 import requests data = { "name":"dandy", "age":18 } response = requests.get("http://*****.com",params=data) print(response.url) # 提交url print(response.text)
本質上方法二會被轉換成方法一 請求頭: content-type:application/url-form-encod...... 請求體: user=dandy&age=18 局限性在於傳遞的value只能是字符串,數字,列表,不能是字典,
上述兩種的結果是相同的,通過params參數傳遞一個字典內容,從而直接構造url。
注意:第二種方式通過字典的方式的時候,如果字典中的參數為None則不會添加到url上
json
import requests import json url = '' response = requests.get(url) print(type(response.text)) print(response.json()) print(json.loads(response.text)) print(type(response.json()))
從結果可以看出requests里面集成的json其實就是執行了json.loads()方法,兩者的結果是一樣的
data = {'user': 'dandy', 'age': 18} ==> json數據 "{'user': 'dandy', 'age': 18}" 請求頭: content-type:application/json.... 請求體: user=dandy&age=18 可以傳遞字典嵌套的字典
獲取二進制數據
在上面提到了response.content,這樣獲取的數據是二進制數據,同樣的這個方法也可以用於下載圖片以及
視頻資源
添加headers
和前面我們將urllib模塊的時候一樣,我們同樣可以定制headers的信息,如當我們直接通過requests請求知乎網站的時候,默認是無法訪問的
之前的實例抽屜自動登陸,就定制了請求頭headers
Referer: requests.request( method="POST", url = url1, params={'k1': v1, 'k2': 'v2'}, json = {'user': 'dandy', 'age': 18} headers={ "Referer": url/login, # 判斷上一次請求的網站是不是也是本網站,不是的話默認為非正常訪問 "User-Agent":"Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } )
cookie
import requests response = requests.get("http://www.baidu.com") print(response.cookies) for k, v in response.cookies.items(): print(k + "=" + v)
Cookie放在請求頭里面發送的
POST請求
通過在發送post請求時添加一個data參數,這個data參數可以通過字典構造成,這樣
對於發送post請求就非常方便
import requests data = { "name":"dandy", "age":18 } response = requests.post("http://*****.com",data=data) print(response.text)
同樣的在發送post請求的時候也可以和發送get請求一樣通過headers參數傳遞一個字典類型的數據
*************************************************************************************
在Django內部,如果是以post傳遞過去數據data = {'user': 'dandy', 'age': 18};
請求頭:
content-type:application/url-form-encod......
請求體:
user=dandy&age=18
根據請求頭的不同決定是否請求體里面的data轉換並放到request.POST里面
*************************************************************************************
響應
我們可以通過response獲得很多屬性,例子如下
import requests response = requests.get("http://www.baidu.com") print(type(response.status_code),response.status_code) print(type(response.headers),response.headers) print(type(response.cookies),response.cookies) print(type(response.url),response.url) print(type(response.history),response.history)
狀態碼判斷
Requests還附帶了一個內置的狀態碼查詢對象
主要有如下內容:
100: ('continue',),
101: ('switching_protocols',),
102: ('processing',),
103: ('checkpoint',),
122: ('uri_too_long', 'request_uri_too_long'),
200: ('ok', 'okay', 'all_ok', 'all_okay', 'all_good', '\o/', '✓'),
201: ('created',),
202: ('accepted',),
203: ('non_authoritative_info', 'non_authoritative_information'),
204: ('no_content',),
205: ('reset_content', 'reset'),
206: ('partial_content', 'partial'),
207: ('multi_status', 'multiple_status', 'multi_stati', 'multiple_stati'),
208: ('already_reported',),
226: ('im_used',),
Redirection.
300: ('multiple_choices',),
301: ('moved_permanently', 'moved', '\o-'),
302: ('found',),
303: ('see_other', 'other'),
304: ('not_modified',),
305: ('use_proxy',),
306: ('switch_proxy',),
307: ('temporary_redirect', 'temporary_moved', 'temporary'),
308: ('permanent_redirect',
'resume_incomplete', 'resume',), # These 2 to be removed in 3.0
Client Error.
400: ('bad_request', 'bad'),
401: ('unauthorized',),
402: ('payment_required', 'payment'),
403: ('forbidden',),
404: ('not_found', '-o-'),
405: ('method_not_allowed', 'not_allowed'),
406: ('not_acceptable',),
407: ('proxy_authentication_required', 'proxy_auth', 'proxy_authentication'),
408: ('request_timeout', 'timeout'),
409: ('conflict',),
410: ('gone',),
411: ('length_required',),
412: ('precondition_failed', 'precondition'),
413: ('request_entity_too_large',),
414: ('request_uri_too_large',),
415: ('unsupported_media_type', 'unsupported_media', 'media_type'),
416: ('requested_range_not_satisfiable', 'requested_range', 'range_not_satisfiable'),
417: ('expectation_failed',),
418: ('im_a_teapot', 'teapot', 'i_am_a_teapot'),
421: ('misdirected_request',),
422: ('unprocessable_entity', 'unprocessable'),
423: ('locked',),
424: ('failed_dependency', 'dependency'),
425: ('unordered_collection', 'unordered'),
426: ('upgrade_required', 'upgrade'),
428: ('precondition_required', 'precondition'),
429: ('too_many_requests', 'too_many'),
431: ('header_fields_too_large', 'fields_too_large'),
444: ('no_response', 'none'),
449: ('retry_with', 'retry'),
450: ('blocked_by_windows_parental_controls', 'parental_controls'),
451: ('unavailable_for_legal_reasons', 'legal_reasons'),
499: ('client_closed_request',),
Server Error.
500: ('internal_server_error', 'server_error', '/o\', '✗'),
501: ('not_implemented',),
502: ('bad_gateway',),
503: ('service_unavailable', 'unavailable'),
504: ('gateway_timeout',),
505: ('http_version_not_supported', 'http_version'),
506: ('variant_also_negotiates',),
507: ('insufficient_storage',),
509: ('bandwidth_limit_exceeded', 'bandwidth'),
510: ('not_extended',),
511: ('network_authentication_required', 'network_auth', 'network_authentication'),
通過下面例子測試:(不過通常還是通過狀態碼判斷更方便)
import requests response= requests.get("http://www.baidu.com") if response.status_code == requests.codes.ok: print("訪問成功")
requests高級用法
文件上傳
實現方法和其他參數類似,也是構造一個字典然后通過files參數傳遞
requests.post( url='xxx', files={ 'f1': open('a.csv', 'rb'), # 上傳文件對象,默認名稱為文件名稱 'f2': (filename, open('b.csv', 'rb')) # 自定義文件名 } )
證書認證
現在的很多網站都是https的方式訪問,所以這個時候就涉及到證書的問題
import requests response = requests.get("https://www.12306.cn") print(response.status_code)
默認的12306網站的證書是不合法的,這樣就會提示如下錯誤
為了避免這種情況的發生可以通過verify=False,這樣是可以訪問到頁面的:
import requests response = requests.get("https://www.12306.cn", verify=False) print(response.status_code)
結果如下:
certificate verification is strongly advised. See: https://urllib3.readthedocs.io/en/latest/advanced-usage.html#ssl-warnings InsecureRequestWarning) 200
解決方法:
import requests import urllib3 urllib3.disable_warnings() response = requests.get("https://www.12306.cn", verify=False) print(response.status_code)
這樣就不會提示警告信息,當然也可以通過cert參數放入證書路徑
關於證書有兩種:
verify:證書 https: ==> ssl加密 requests.get( url='https://...', cert='abc.pem', # 自己制作的證書 pem證書格式 ) requests.get( # 廠商制作好的,在系統創建時就已經植入,直接購買權限 url='https://...', cert=('abc.crt', 'xxx.key'), ) verify:False 忽略證書,直接交互
代理設置
import requests proxies= { "http":"http://127.0.0.1:9999", "https":"http://127.0.0.1:8888" } response = requests.get("https://www.baidu.com",proxies=proxies) print(response.text)
如果代理需要設置賬戶名和密碼,只需要將字典更改為如下:
proxies = {
"http":"http://user:password@127.0.0.1:9999"
}
如果你的代理是通過sokces這種方式則需要pip install "requests[socks]"
proxies= {
"http":"socks5://127.0.0.1:9999",
"https":"sockes5://127.0.0.1:8888"
}
請求不是發送到目的URL的,而是先發送給代理,代理再去發送請求
超時設置
通過timeout參數可以設置超時的時間,等服務器多長時間放棄
(a,b) ==> a 發送最長時間;b 等待最長時間
認證設置
如果碰到需要認證的網站可以通過requests.auth模塊實現
import requests from requests.auth import HTTPBasicAuth response = requests.get("http://120.27.34.24:9001/",auth=HTTPBasicAuth("user","123")) print(response.status_code)
另一種方式:
import requests response = requests.get("http://120.27.34.24:9001/",auth=("user","123")) print(response.status_code)
基本登陸框 md5加密請求頭發送過去, 用戶名&密碼
重定向設置
allow-redirects:是否允許重定向到新的地址拿數據
分流迭代設置
流,如果為false,會一次性下載,如果為true,會一點一點的下載,迭代拿
session設置(持久化)
還記得前面大費周章的去把cookies值裝進headers,重新認證么?現在用session來改寫一下!!!
import requests session = requests.Session() headers = { "User-Agent": "Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_13_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/67.0.3396.99 Safari/537.36" } # 1、首先登陸任何頁面,獲取cookie r1 = session.get( url='https://dig.chouti.com/', headers=headers ) # 2、用戶登陸,攜帶上一次的cookie,后台對cookie中的gpsd進行授權 post_dict = { 'phone': '8615988888888', 'password': 'zhang1111111', 'oneMonth': 1, } r2 = session.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/login', data=post_dict, headers=headers ) # 點贊 r3 = session.post( url='https://dig.chouti.com/link/vote?linksId=20819051', headers=headers ) print(r3.text)
結果輸出:
{"result":{"code":"9999", "message":"推薦成功", "data":{"jid":"cdu_51970753537","likedTime":"1531744254481000","lvCount":"5","nick":"衰Zzz","uvCount":"2","voteTime":"小於1分鍾前"}}}
直接從開始就持久化。。問題迎刃而解。
異常處理
http://www.python-requests.org/en/master/api/#exceptions
Exceptions
-
exception
requests.
RequestException
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
There was an ambiguous exception that occurred while handling your request.
-
exception
requests.
ConnectionError
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
A Connection error occurred.
-
exception
requests.
HTTPError
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
An HTTP error occurred.
-
exception
requests.
URLRequired
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
A valid URL is required to make a request.
-
exception
requests.
TooManyRedirects
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
Too many redirects.
-
exception
requests.
ConnectTimeout
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
The request timed out while trying to connect to the remote server.
Requests that produced this error are safe to retry.
-
exception
requests.
ReadTimeout
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
The server did not send any data in the allotted amount of time.
-
exception
requests.
Timeout
(*args, **kwargs)[source] -
The request timed out.
Catching this error will catch both
ConnectTimeout
andReadTimeout
errors. -
從源碼我們可以看出RequestException繼承IOError,
HTTPError,ConnectionError,Timeout繼承RequestionException
ProxyError,SSLError繼承ConnectionError
ReadTimeout繼承Timeout異常
簡單sample:
import requests from requests.exceptions import ReadTimeout,ConnectionError,RequestException try: response = requests.get("http://httpbin.org/get",timout=0.1) print(response.status_code) except ReadTimeout: print("timeout") except ConnectionError: print("connection Error") except RequestException: print("error")
其實最后測試可以發現,首先被捕捉的異常是timeout,當把網絡斷掉就會捕捉到ConnectionError,如果前面異常都沒有捕捉到,最后也可以通過RequestExctption捕捉到
參照:zhaofan老師的blog http://www.cnblogs.com/zhaof/p/6915127.html
參照源碼:

def request(method, url, **kwargs): """Constructs and sends a :class:`Request <Request>`. :param method: method for the new :class:`Request` object. :param url: URL for the new :class:`Request` object. :param params: (optional) Dictionary or bytes to be sent in the query string for the :class:`Request`. :param data: (optional) Dictionary or list of tuples ``[(key, value)]`` (will be form-encoded), bytes, or file-like object to send in the body of the :class:`Request`. :param json: (optional) A JSON serializable Python object to send in the body of the :class:`Request`. :param headers: (optional) Dictionary of HTTP Headers to send with the :class:`Request`. :param cookies: (optional) Dict or CookieJar object to send with the :class:`Request`. :param files: (optional) Dictionary of ``'name': file-like-objects`` (or ``{'name': file-tuple}``) for multipart encoding upload. ``file-tuple`` can be a 2-tuple ``('filename', fileobj)``, 3-tuple ``('filename', fileobj, 'content_type')`` or a 4-tuple ``('filename', fileobj, 'content_type', custom_headers)``, where ``'content-type'`` is a string defining the content type of the given file and ``custom_headers`` a dict-like object containing additional headers to add for the file. :param auth: (optional) Auth tuple to enable Basic/Digest/Custom HTTP Auth. :param timeout: (optional) How many seconds to wait for the server to send data before giving up, as a float, or a :ref:`(connect timeout, read timeout) <timeouts>` tuple. :type timeout: float or tuple :param allow_redirects: (optional) Boolean. Enable/disable GET/OPTIONS/POST/PUT/PATCH/DELETE/HEAD redirection. Defaults to ``True``. :type allow_redirects: bool :param proxies: (optional) Dictionary mapping protocol to the URL of the proxy. :param verify: (optional) Either a boolean, in which case it controls whether we verify the server's TLS certificate, or a string, in which case it must be a path to a CA bundle to use. Defaults to ``True``. :param stream: (optional) if ``False``, the response content will be immediately downloaded. :param cert: (optional) if String, path to ssl client cert file (.pem). If Tuple, ('cert', 'key') pair. :return: :class:`Response <Response>` object :rtype: requests.Response Usage:: >>> import requests >>> req = requests.request('GET', 'http://httpbin.org/get') <Response [200]> """ # By using the 'with' statement we are sure the session is closed, thus we # avoid leaving sockets open which can trigger a ResourceWarning in some # cases, and look like a memory leak in others. with sessions.Session() as session: return session.request(method=method, url=url, **kwargs)