Python學習總結【第二十六篇】: Web框架Tornado【基礎篇】


概述

  Tornado 是 FriendFeed 使用的可擴展的非阻塞式 web 服務器及其相關工具的開源版本。這個 Web 框架看起來有些像web.py 或者 Google 的 webapp,不過為了能有效利用非阻塞式服務器環境,這個 Web 框架還包含了一些相關的有用工具 和優化。

  Tornado 和現在的主流 Web 服務器框架(包括大多數 Python 的框架)有着明顯的區別:它是非阻塞式服務器,而且速度相當快。得利於其 非阻塞的方式和對 epoll 的運用,Tornado 每秒可以處理數以千計的連接,這意味着對於實時 Web 服務來說,Tornado 是一個理想的 Web 框架。我們開發這個 Web 服務器的主要目的就是為了處理 FriendFeed 的實時功能 ——在 FriendFeed 的應用里每一個活動用戶都會保持着一個服務器連接。(關於如何擴容 服務器,以處理數以千計的客戶端的連接的問題,請參閱 C10K problem。)

安裝:

方法1:pip安裝
    pip3 install tornad

方法2:源碼安裝
    https://pypi.python.org/packages/source/t/tornado/tornado-4.3.tar.gz
  tar xvzf tornado-4.4.2.tar.gz
  cd tornado-4.4.2
  python setup.py build
  python setup.py install

官網:http://www.tornadoweb.org/en/stable/

中文:http://www.tornadoweb.cn/

 

框架使用

1、快速上手

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
   
import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
   
   
class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.write("Hello, world")
   
application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
])
   
   
if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(8888)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
案例

執行流程:

  • 第一步:執行腳本,監聽 8888 端口
  • 第二步:瀏覽器客戶端訪問 /index  -->  http://127.0.0.1:8888/index
  • 第三步:服務器接受請求,並交由對應的類處理該請求
  • 第四步:類接受到請求之后,根據請求方式(post / get / delete ...)的不同調用並執行相應的方法
  • 第五步:方法返回值的字符串內容發送瀏覽器
#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-

import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
from tornado import httpclient
from tornado.web import asynchronous
from tornado import gen

import uimodules as md
import uimethods as mt

class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
        @asynchronous
        @gen.coroutine
        def get(self):
            print 'start get '
            http = httpclient.AsyncHTTPClient()
            http.fetch("http://127.0.0.1:8008/post/", self.callback)
            self.write('end')

        def callback(self, response):
            print response.body

settings = {
    'template_path': 'template',
    'static_path': 'static',
    'static_url_prefix': '/static/',
    'ui_methods': mt,
    'ui_modules': md,
}

application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
], **settings)


if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(8009)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
異步非阻塞示例

2、路由系統

  路由系統其實就是url和類的對應關系,這里不同於其他框架,其他很多框架均是 url 對應 函數,Tornado中每個url對應的是一個類。

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
   
import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
   
   
class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.write("Hello, world")
   
class StoryHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self, story_id):
        self.write("You requested the story " + story_id)
   
class BuyHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.write("buy.wupeiqi.com/index")
   
application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
    (r"/story/([0-9]+)", StoryHandler),
])
   
application.add_handlers('buy.wupeiqi.com$', [
    (r'/index',BuyHandler),
])
   
if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(80)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
路由案例

Tornado中原生支持二級域名的路由,如:

3、模板引擎

  Tornao中的模板語言和django中類似,模板引擎將模板文件載入內存,然后將數據嵌入其中,最終獲取到一個完整的字符串,再將字符串返回給請求者。

  Tornado 的模板支持“控制語句”和“表達語句”,控制語句是使用 {% 和 %} 包起來的 例如 {% if len(items) > 2 %}。表達語句是使用 {{ 和 }} 包起來的,例如 {{ items[0] }}

  控制語句和對應的 Python 語句的格式基本完全相同。我們支持 ifforwhile 和 try,這些語句邏輯結束的位置需要用 {% end %} 做標記。還通過 extends 和 block 語句實現了模板繼承。這些在 template 模塊 的代碼文檔中有着詳細的描述。

注:在使用模板前需要在setting中設置模板路徑:"template_path" : "tpl"

3.1 基本使用

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
  
import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
  
  
class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.render("index.html", list_info = [11,22,33])
  
application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
])
  
  
if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(8888)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
app.py
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/>
    <title>練習</title>
    <link href="{{static_url("css/common.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" />
</head>
<body>

    <div>
        <ul>
            {% for item in list_info %}
                <li>{{item}}</li>
            {% end %}
        </ul>
    </div>
    
    <script src="{{static_url("js/jquery-1.8.2.min.js")}}"></script>
    
</body>
</html>
index.html
在模板中默認提供了一些函數、字段、類以供模板使用:

escape: tornado.escape.xhtml_escape 的別名
xhtml_escape: tornado.escape.xhtml_escape 的別名
url_escape: tornado.escape.url_escape 的別名
json_encode: tornado.escape.json_encode 的別名
squeeze: tornado.escape.squeeze 的別名
linkify: tornado.escape.linkify 的別名
datetime: Python 的 datetime 模組
handler: 當前的 RequestHandler 對象
request: handler.request 的別名
current_user: handler.current_user 的別名
locale: handler.locale 的別名
_: handler.locale.translate 的別名
static_url: for handler.static_url 的別名
xsrf_form_html: handler.xsrf_form_html 的別名
其他

 

3.2 母版

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/>
    <title>老男孩</title>
    <link href="{{static_url("css/common.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" />
    {% block CSS %}{% end %}
</head>
<body>

    <div class="pg-header">

    </div>
    
    {% block RenderBody %}{% end %}
   
    <script src="{{static_url("js/jquery-1.8.2.min.js")}}"></script>
    
    {% block JavaScript %}{% end %}
</body>
</html>
layout.html
{% extends 'layout.html'%}
{% block CSS %}
    <link href="{{static_url("css/index.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" />
{% end %}

{% block RenderBody %}
    <h1>Index</h1>

    <ul>
    {%  for item in li %}
        <li>{{item}}</li>
    {% end %}
    </ul>

{% end %}

{% block JavaScript %}
    
{% end %}
index.html

 

3.3 導入

<div>
    <ul>
        <li>1024</li>
        <li>42區</li>
    </ul>
</div>
header.html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/>
    <title>練習</title>
    <link href="{{static_url("css/common.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" />
</head>
<body>

    <div class="pg-header">
        {% include 'header.html' %}
    </div>
    
    <script src="{{static_url("js/jquery-1.8.2.min.js")}}"></script>
    
</body>
</html>
index.html

 

 3.4 自定義ui_method及ui_module

a、定義

# uimethods.py
 
def tab(self):
    return 'UIMethod'
uimethods.py
#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
from tornado.web import UIModule
from tornado import escape

class custom(UIModule):

    def render(self, *args, **kwargs):
        return escape.xhtml_escape('<h1>test</h1>')
uimodules.py

 

b、注冊

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-

import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
from tornado.escape import linkify
import uimodules as md
import uimethods as mt

class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.render('index.html')

settings = {
    'template_path': 'template',
    'static_path': 'static',
    'static_url_prefix': '/static/',
    'ui_methods': mt,
    'ui_modules': md,
}

application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
], **settings)


if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(8009)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
View Code

 

c、使用

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head lang="en">
    <meta charset="UTF-8">
    <title></title>
    <link href="{{static_url("commons.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" />
</head>
<body>
    <h1>hello</h1>
    {% module custom(123) %}
    {{ tab() }}
</body>
View Code

 

4、靜態文件

  對於靜態文件,可以配置靜態文件的目錄和前端使用時的前綴,並且Tornaodo還支持靜態文件緩存。

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
 
import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
 
 
class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.render('home/index.html')
 
settings = {
    'template_path': 'template',
    'static_path': 'static',
    'static_url_prefix': '/static/',
}
 
application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
], **settings)
 
 
if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(80)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
app.py
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head lang="en">
    <meta charset="UTF-8">
    <title></title>
    <link href="{{static_url("commons.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" />
</head>
<body>
    <h1>hello</h1>
</body>
</html>
index.html

注:靜態文件緩存的實現

    def get_content_version(cls, abspath):
        """Returns a version string for the resource at the given path.

        This class method may be overridden by subclasses.  The
        default implementation is a hash of the file's contents.

        .. versionadded:: 3.1
        """
        data = cls.get_content(abspath)
        hasher = hashlib.md5()
        if isinstance(data, bytes):
            hasher.update(data)
        else:
            for chunk in data:
                hasher.update(chunk)
        return hasher.hexdigest()
View Code

 

5、Cookie

  Tornado中可以對cookie進行操作,並且還可以對cookie進行簽名以放置偽造。

5.1 基本操作

class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        if not self.get_cookie("mycookie"):
            self.set_cookie("mycookie", "myvalue")
            self.write("Your cookie was not set yet!")
        else:
            self.write("Your cookie was set!")

 

5.2 加密cookie(簽名)

  Cookie 很容易被惡意的客戶端偽造。加入你想在 cookie 中保存當前登陸用戶的 id 之類的信息,你需要對 cookie 作簽名以防止偽造。Tornado 通過 set_secure_cookie 和 get_secure_cookie 方法直接支持了這種功能。 要使用這些方法,你需要在創建應用時提供一個密鑰,名字為 cookie_secret。 你可以把它作為一個關鍵詞參數傳入應用的設置中:

class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        if not self.get_secure_cookie("mycookie"):
            self.set_secure_cookie("mycookie", "myvalue")
            self.write("Your cookie was not set yet!")
        else:
            self.write("Your cookie was set!")
             
application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/", MainHandler),
], cookie_secret="61oETzKXQAGaYdkL5gEmGeJJFuYh7EQnp2XdTP1o/Vo=")
設置
def _create_signature_v1(secret, *parts):
    hash = hmac.new(utf8(secret), digestmod=hashlib.sha1)
    for part in parts:
        hash.update(utf8(part))
    return utf8(hash.hexdigest())

# 加密
def _create_signature_v2(secret, s):
    hash = hmac.new(utf8(secret), digestmod=hashlib.sha256)
    hash.update(utf8(s))
    return utf8(hash.hexdigest())

def create_signed_value(secret, name, value, version=None, clock=None,
                        key_version=None):
    if version is None:
        version = DEFAULT_SIGNED_VALUE_VERSION
    if clock is None:
        clock = time.time

    timestamp = utf8(str(int(clock())))
    value = base64.b64encode(utf8(value))
    if version == 1:
        signature = _create_signature_v1(secret, name, value, timestamp)
        value = b"|".join([value, timestamp, signature])
        return value
    elif version == 2:
        # The v2 format consists of a version number and a series of
        # length-prefixed fields "%d:%s", the last of which is a
        # signature, all separated by pipes.  All numbers are in
        # decimal format with no leading zeros.  The signature is an
        # HMAC-SHA256 of the whole string up to that point, including
        # the final pipe.
        #
        # The fields are:
        # - format version (i.e. 2; no length prefix)
        # - key version (integer, default is 0)
        # - timestamp (integer seconds since epoch)
        # - name (not encoded; assumed to be ~alphanumeric)
        # - value (base64-encoded)
        # - signature (hex-encoded; no length prefix)
        def format_field(s):
            return utf8("%d:" % len(s)) + utf8(s)
        to_sign = b"|".join([
            b"2",
            format_field(str(key_version or 0)),
            format_field(timestamp),
            format_field(name),
            format_field(value),
            b''])

        if isinstance(secret, dict):
            assert key_version is not None, 'Key version must be set when sign key dict is used'
            assert version >= 2, 'Version must be at least 2 for key version support'
            secret = secret[key_version]

        signature = _create_signature_v2(secret, to_sign)
        return to_sign + signature
    else:
        raise ValueError("Unsupported version %d" % version)

# 解密
def _decode_signed_value_v1(secret, name, value, max_age_days, clock):
    parts = utf8(value).split(b"|")
    if len(parts) != 3:
        return None
    signature = _create_signature_v1(secret, name, parts[0], parts[1])
    if not _time_independent_equals(parts[2], signature):
        gen_log.warning("Invalid cookie signature %r", value)
        return None
    timestamp = int(parts[1])
    if timestamp < clock() - max_age_days * 86400:
        gen_log.warning("Expired cookie %r", value)
        return None
    if timestamp > clock() + 31 * 86400:
        # _cookie_signature does not hash a delimiter between the
        # parts of the cookie, so an attacker could transfer trailing
        # digits from the payload to the timestamp without altering the
        # signature.  For backwards compatibility, sanity-check timestamp
        # here instead of modifying _cookie_signature.
        gen_log.warning("Cookie timestamp in future; possible tampering %r",
                        value)
        return None
    if parts[1].startswith(b"0"):
        gen_log.warning("Tampered cookie %r", value)
        return None
    try:
        return base64.b64decode(parts[0])
    except Exception:
        return None


def _decode_fields_v2(value):
    def _consume_field(s):
        length, _, rest = s.partition(b':')
        n = int(length)
        field_value = rest[:n]
        # In python 3, indexing bytes returns small integers; we must
        # use a slice to get a byte string as in python 2.
        if rest[n:n + 1] != b'|':
            raise ValueError("malformed v2 signed value field")
        rest = rest[n + 1:]
        return field_value, rest

    rest = value[2:]  # remove version number
    key_version, rest = _consume_field(rest)
    timestamp, rest = _consume_field(rest)
    name_field, rest = _consume_field(rest)
    value_field, passed_sig = _consume_field(rest)
    return int(key_version), timestamp, name_field, value_field, passed_sig


def _decode_signed_value_v2(secret, name, value, max_age_days, clock):
    try:
        key_version, timestamp, name_field, value_field, passed_sig = _decode_fields_v2(value)
    except ValueError:
        return None
    signed_string = value[:-len(passed_sig)]

    if isinstance(secret, dict):
        try:
            secret = secret[key_version]
        except KeyError:
            return None

    expected_sig = _create_signature_v2(secret, signed_string)
    if not _time_independent_equals(passed_sig, expected_sig):
        return None
    if name_field != utf8(name):
        return None
    timestamp = int(timestamp)
    if timestamp < clock() - max_age_days * 86400:
        # The signature has expired.
        return None
    try:
        return base64.b64decode(value_field)
    except Exception:
        return None


def get_signature_key_version(value):
    value = utf8(value)
    version = _get_version(value)
    if version < 2:
        return None
    try:
        key_version, _, _, _, _ = _decode_fields_v2(value)
    except ValueError:
        return None

    return key_version

內部算法
內部算法

簽名Cookie的本質

寫cookie過程:

  • 將值進行base64加密
  • 對除值以外的內容進行簽名,哈希算法(無法逆向解析)
  • 拼接 簽名 + 加密值

讀cookie過程:

  • 讀取 簽名 + 加密值
  • 對簽名進行驗證
  • base64解密,獲取值內容

注:許多API驗證機制和安全cookie的實現機制相同。

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
 
import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
 
 
class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
 
    def get(self):
        login_user = self.get_secure_cookie("login_user", None)
        if login_user:
            self.write(login_user)
        else:
            self.redirect('/login')
 
 
class LoginHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.current_user()
 
        self.render('login.html', **{'status': ''})
 
    def post(self, *args, **kwargs):
 
        username = self.get_argument('name')
        password = self.get_argument('pwd')
        if username == 'wupeiqi' and password == '123':
            self.set_secure_cookie('login_user', '武沛齊')
            self.redirect('/')
        else:
            self.render('login.html', **{'status': '用戶名或密碼錯誤'})
 
settings = {
    'template_path': 'template',
    'static_path': 'static',
    'static_url_prefix': '/static/',
    'cookie_secret': 'aiuasdhflashjdfoiuashdfiuh'
}
 
application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
    (r"/login", LoginHandler),
], **settings)
 
 
if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(8888)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
基於Cookie實現用戶驗證-Demo
#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding:utf-8 -*-
 
import tornado.ioloop
import tornado.web
 
class BaseHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
 
    def get_current_user(self):
        return self.get_secure_cookie("login_user")
 
class MainHandler(BaseHandler):
 
    @tornado.web.authenticated
    def get(self):
        login_user = self.current_user
        self.write(login_user)
 
 
 
class LoginHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
    def get(self):
        self.current_user()
 
        self.render('login.html', **{'status': ''})
 
    def post(self, *args, **kwargs):
 
        username = self.get_argument('name')
        password = self.get_argument('pwd')
        if username == 'wupeiqi' and password == '123':
            self.set_secure_cookie('login_user', '武沛齊')
            self.redirect('/')
        else:
            self.render('login.html', **{'status': '用戶名或密碼錯誤'})
 
settings = {
    'template_path': 'template',
    'static_path': 'static',
    'static_url_prefix': '/static/',
    'cookie_secret': 'aiuasdhflashjdfoiuashdfiuh',
    'login_url': '/login'
}
 
application = tornado.web.Application([
    (r"/index", MainHandler),
    (r"/login", LoginHandler),
], **settings)
 
 
if __name__ == "__main__":
    application.listen(8888)
    tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
基於簽名Cookie實現用戶驗證-Demo

 

5.3 javascript操作cookie

 由於Cookie保存在瀏覽器端,所以在瀏覽器端也可以使用JavaScript來操作Cookie。

/*
設置cookie,指定秒數過期
 */
function setCookie(name,value,expires){
    var temp = [];
    var current_date = new Date();
    current_date.setSeconds(current_date.getSeconds() + 5);
    document.cookie = name + "= "+ value +";expires=" + current_date.toUTCString();
}

對於參數:

  • domain   指定域名下的cookie
  • path       域名下指定url中的cookie
  • secure    https使用

注:jQuery中也有指定的插件 jQuery Cookie 專門用於操作cookie,猛擊這里

6、CSRF

7、上傳文件

8、驗證碼

9、異步非阻塞

 

自定義web組件

1、session

2、表單驗證


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